Xcited from the ground state to the singlet AZD3759 solubility excited state (1PS) with light of a specific wavelength. From this excited state, the PS undergoes intersystem crossing to an electronically different excited state lower in energy such as the triplet state (3PS). In its long-lived triplet state the PS reacts with local microenvironment to generate reactive molecular species or free radicals. These reactive species induce cell death. For example, energy from the PS triplet state is transferred to the ground-state triplet oxygen molecules (3O2) to generate reactive singlet oxygen (1O2) molecules.PDT efficacy is determined by the interplay between light, the PS and the tissue microenvironment [15], and depends on several parameters such as the PS delivery-light-interval, overall light dose, the macroscopic and cellular PS localization, and the tumor oxygenation status, among others. Selective tissue damage can only be achieved when light and the PS are present in sufficient quantities at the desired location. Substantial efforts by several groups to enhance light delivery to deeper tissues are in progress; however, an upper limit exists on how far into the infrared region a PS can absorb light and still produce cytotoxic species. In photochemistry, the PS is typically electronically excited to the singlet excited state upon absorption of a photon. From this excited state, the PS molecule undergoes intersystem crossing to a longer lived triplet state, which can initiate photochemical reactions directly, giving rise to reactive free radicals, or transfer its energy to the ground-state triplet oxygen molecules (3O2) to generate reactive singlet oxygen (1O2) molecules. Specifically, the energy required to excite an oxygen molecule from its ground state to its singlet state is 0.96 eV, creating an upper limit on the excitation wavelength to be around 850-900 nm depending on the energy level of the PSs’ triplet state. Because most of the currently used PS’s have absorption peaks in the 600 – 750 nm range (Fig. 1), the light irradiation window for PDT has been restricted to this range within the past few decades. Overall, the limitations stemming from the PS excitation wavelength and light delivery, coupled with the variability in clinical outcomes caused by inconsistencies due to interor intramicroenvironmental heterogeneity and the failure to customize the PDT dose in a patient-specific manner, historically has prevented PDT from gaining widespread acceptance as a first-line therapeutic modality. PDT’s therapeutic impact extends beyond thezone treated by light. Here, we review the current efforts and advances in the field of PDT to Stattic web facilitate deep tissue therapy beyond the traditional barriers set by tissue optical properties. The first section of this review will discuss new developments in light delivery strategies that enable PS excitation in tissues deeper than previously possible. In the second section, we discuss new PS targeting strategies that enhance the selectivity and efficacy of PDT in deep tissue by reducing off-target toxicities. Throughout the review, the prospects for the clinical translation of PDT and the requirement for treatment monitoring techniques that enable accurate PDT dosimetry are discussed. Perspectives on combining PDT with current clinically-relevant treatments and other forward looking therapies such as mechanism-based combination regimens are discussed. We also discuss the impact of biomodulatory approaches that ampl.Xcited from the ground state to the singlet excited state (1PS) with light of a specific wavelength. From this excited state, the PS undergoes intersystem crossing to an electronically different excited state lower in energy such as the triplet state (3PS). In its long-lived triplet state the PS reacts with local microenvironment to generate reactive molecular species or free radicals. These reactive species induce cell death. For example, energy from the PS triplet state is transferred to the ground-state triplet oxygen molecules (3O2) to generate reactive singlet oxygen (1O2) molecules.PDT efficacy is determined by the interplay between light, the PS and the tissue microenvironment [15], and depends on several parameters such as the PS delivery-light-interval, overall light dose, the macroscopic and cellular PS localization, and the tumor oxygenation status, among others. Selective tissue damage can only be achieved when light and the PS are present in sufficient quantities at the desired location. Substantial efforts by several groups to enhance light delivery to deeper tissues are in progress; however, an upper limit exists on how far into the infrared region a PS can absorb light and still produce cytotoxic species. In photochemistry, the PS is typically electronically excited to the singlet excited state upon absorption of a photon. From this excited state, the PS molecule undergoes intersystem crossing to a longer lived triplet state, which can initiate photochemical reactions directly, giving rise to reactive free radicals, or transfer its energy to the ground-state triplet oxygen molecules (3O2) to generate reactive singlet oxygen (1O2) molecules. Specifically, the energy required to excite an oxygen molecule from its ground state to its singlet state is 0.96 eV, creating an upper limit on the excitation wavelength to be around 850-900 nm depending on the energy level of the PSs’ triplet state. Because most of the currently used PS’s have absorption peaks in the 600 – 750 nm range (Fig. 1), the light irradiation window for PDT has been restricted to this range within the past few decades. Overall, the limitations stemming from the PS excitation wavelength and light delivery, coupled with the variability in clinical outcomes caused by inconsistencies due to interor intramicroenvironmental heterogeneity and the failure to customize the PDT dose in a patient-specific manner, historically has prevented PDT from gaining widespread acceptance as a first-line therapeutic modality. PDT’s therapeutic impact extends beyond thezone treated by light. Here, we review the current efforts and advances in the field of PDT to facilitate deep tissue therapy beyond the traditional barriers set by tissue optical properties. The first section of this review will discuss new developments in light delivery strategies that enable PS excitation in tissues deeper than previously possible. In the second section, we discuss new PS targeting strategies that enhance the selectivity and efficacy of PDT in deep tissue by reducing off-target toxicities. Throughout the review, the prospects for the clinical translation of PDT and the requirement for treatment monitoring techniques that enable accurate PDT dosimetry are discussed. Perspectives on combining PDT with current clinically-relevant treatments and other forward looking therapies such as mechanism-based combination regimens are discussed. We also discuss the impact of biomodulatory approaches that ampl.
