arkers of exposure in 24-h urine and first-morning urine samples, respectively. OTA was detected in 27 of first-morning urine samples, respectively, confirming the exposure of your PortugueseMolecules 2022, 27,6 ofpopulation to this mycotoxin. The concentrations determined in first-morning urine samples ranged between 710 ng L-1 . OT was not detected. It need to be talked about that the typical OTA levels determined within this study were 3- to 10-fold decrease than these reported in other European countries, which is HSP90 Antagonist supplier usually justified by variations in the analytical techniques applied [59]. Thinking of this reported widespread occurrence, a recent study [60] analyzed OTA exposure in youngsters among 2 and 13 years old. Even though regarded a more susceptible population, infant exposure to this mycotoxin had only been surveyed in three previous research in Cameroon [61], Sierra Leone [62] and Belgium [63]. The initial survey that analyzed OTA in urine samples from Portuguese infants showed widespread OTA exposure. Indeed, in samples in the 85 healthy young children enrolled, the majority (92.94 ) were located to be positive, with up to 52 ng L-1 (114.45 ng g-1 of creatinine). Moreover, taking into account the mean OTA levels determined, the danger assessed ranged from ten to 194 , and were therefore of concern [60]. Adult occupational exposure to OTA also showed widespread DYRK2 Inhibitor Formulation contamination (80 ) via analyzed urine samples from workers from swine farms, though with only a single sample larger than the limit of quantification [42]. Handle groups also showed widespread urine contamination (68 ), which suggests that inhalation within the context of occupational exposure could moreover contribute, although less substantially, to exposure to OTA. Exposure assessments in a different occupational setting (a fresh dough firm) revealed that OTA was the second most prevalent mycotoxin (following deoxynivalenol glucuronide), although the control group presented a higher frequency of contamination. In both functioning and control groups, OTA was below the limit of quantification [64].Table 2. The occurrence and levels of OTA (ng L-1 ) in distinctive biological samples collected amongst the Portuguese population. Biomarker OTA OTA Matrix Urine Urine Sample Kids (23 years old) Swine farm workers Control group Fresh dough company workers Handle group Waste management workers Manage group Waste management workers Control group All participants Porto Coimbra Lisboa Alentejo Common adult population (Coimbra) Common adult population Hemodialyzed patients from: -Coimbra Aveiro Basic adult population Common adult population Incidence ( ) 79/85 (92.94 ) 20/25 (80 ) 13/19 (68 ) 10/21 (48 ) 13/19 (68 ) 42/42 (100 ) 34/42 (81 ) 408/472 (86.4 ) 90/111 (81.1 ) 77/94 (81.9 ) 127/150 (85.3 ) 113/117 (96.6 ) 104/104 (100 ): 13/30 (43.3 ) 50/50 (one hundred ) 45/45 (one hundred ) 42/60 (70 ) 27 Range (n.d.two) (n.d.00) LOQ LOQ LOQ (441047) (n.d.27) (n.d.22) (n.d.two) (n.d.9) (n.d.4) (n.d.22) (19060) (n.d.08) 120520 150030 (n.d.05) 710 Typical SD 20 13 100 LOQ LOQ LOQ 1007 [55] 334 19 14 17 ten 16 11 19 14 23 16 420 180 19 41 500 290 490 220 38 Reference [60] [42]OTAUrine[64]OTA R-OTABlood serum Blood serumOTAUrine[56]OTA OTA OTA OTA OTABlood serum Urine Blood serum Urine Urine[54] [58] [53] [57] [59]Molecules 2022, 27,7 of3.3. Fumonisins Fumonisins (FBs), mycotoxins with distinct structurally related analogues, are predominantly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum, which are present in maize an
